Below, you’ll find a set of simple practices designed to help reduce stress, boost your mood, deepen self-awareness, and support your mental and emotional well-being.

Relaxation exercises: calming the body to soothe the mind

When you feel stressed, your body naturally switches into ‘alert mode’. Your heart races, your muscles tighten, and your breathing speeds up. This fight-or-flight response is helpful in emergencies, but can make everyday stress feel overwhelming.

The good news is that your body has a calming system that can slow your heartbeat, ease tension, and restore balance. Relaxation exercises are designed to turn this system on.

Deep belly breathing (4-2-6) 

In stressful moments, many people breathe quickly and shallowly—or even hold their breath without realizing it. This can leave you feeling lightheaded, tense, and on edge, which only adds to stress.

Deep belly breathing reverses this pattern. Breathe in slowly through your nose for four seconds, hold gently for two, and exhale slowly for six.

Breathing this way signals safety to your body, steadies your heart rate, and slows racing thoughts. Try it before a big meeting, in traffic, or at bedtime to help you unwind.

Progressive muscle relaxation

This technique helps you notice and release hidden tension. Begin at your feet: gently tense the muscles for 5-10 seconds, then release. Pay attention to the difference between tension and relaxation.

Move upward through your calves, thighs, stomach, shoulders, and face. With practice, you train your body to relax on command. This is especially useful if you carry stress in your shoulders, clench your jaw, or get tension headaches.

Grounding with the five senses

Grounding brings your attention back to the present moment and prevents overwhelming emotions from taking over.

One of the easiest grounding methods is to note down what your senses are experiencing:

• 5 things you can see (e.g., a book on the table, a tree outside, your shoes)
• 4 things you can touch (e.g., your chair, your hands, the floor, a pen)
• 3 things you can hear (e.g., birds outside, traffic, your own breathing)
• 2 things you can smell (e.g., coffee, soap)
• 1 thing you can taste (e.g., a sip of water, a mint)

The simple shift of focus interrupts racing thoughts and anchors you in the here and now.

Mindfulness and thought exercises

Body scan meditation

The body scan is a mindfulness technique that helps you relax by paying gentle attention to physical sensations from head to toe.

It’s a way of checking in with your body, noticing tension or discomfort you are feeling.

First, sit or lie down somewhere quiet.

Start with your toes and slowly move your focus upward—feet, legs, stomach, shoulders, and face—pausing at each area. Notice what you feel: warmth, tightness, tingling, or ease.

This practice promotes relaxation, reduces stress, and helps you feel more connected to your body.

Thought record

A thought record helps you evaluate negative thoughts and come up with alternative, more balanced perspectives.

Start by writing about a stressful situation and the automatic thought that popped up (e.g., “If I make a mistake at work, I’ll be fired”). Next, jot down the emotions you felt, then list evidence for and against that thought.

Finally, create a more balanced version (e.g., “Everyone makes mistakes sometimes, and one slip doesn’t erase my good work”). This exercise helps shift rigid, anxious thinking toward a calmer, more realistic outlook.

Gratitude list

Stress often pulls attention toward what’s missing or what went wrong, leaving little room for appreciation.

A gratitude list interrupts this ungrateful cycle and redirects your focus to what’s going right. Each day, write down three things you’re thankful for—big or small.

It could be “a good cup of coffee”, “a kind text from a friend”, or “the sound of rain”.

Over time, this daily habit trains your brain to notice positives instead of only focusing on problems. Gratitude lists can help lift mood, improve relationships, and build a more hopeful outlook.

Everyday coping exercises

When stress builds, it’s easy to get pulled off track by emotions or distractions. Everyday coping exercises help you steady yourself, refocus, and respond in ways that support your goals.

Journaling, for example, has been shown to reduce stress, lift your mood, boost self-esteem, and even help you process difficult experiences.

These small practices may look simple, but with regular use, they can make a big difference in how you handle daily challenges.

Mood journaling

Keeping a mood journal helps you improve self-awareness and understand your emotional patterns. It can also make it easier to sort through complex emotions that feel confusing or overwhelming.

Take a few minutes each day to jot down what happened, how you felt, and how you reacted. For example: “Meeting at work → felt anxious → skipped lunch.”

Over time, this record shows what situations affect you most and gives you a clearer picture of how your emotions connect to your choices. This awareness is the first step toward change.

STOP technique

When strong emotions arise, it’s easy to react on autopilot—snapping, shutting down, or saying something you’ll regret.

Use the STOP method to manage intense emotions. It helps you pause before reacting and choose a calmer response:

• Stop: pause what you’re doing. Don’t act right away.
• Take a step back: breathe deeply or step away from the situation.
• Observe: notice how you’re feeling, what you’re thinking, and what’s happening around you. Ask: “What am I feeling right now? What’s really going on here?”
• Proceed mindfully: move forward with more awareness. Ask: “What would be the most helpful way to respond?”

This quick reset helps you handle stress with more clarity and control.

Small, clear goals

Big tasks can feel overwhelming, which often leads to procrastination or frustration. Breaking goals into smaller steps makes them more manageable and less stressful.

A helpful way to do this is the SMART method:

• Specific: be clear about what you want to do (e.g., “Go for a 10-minute walk” instead of “exercise more”).
• Measurable: make sure you can track progress (check off something from a list when completed).
• Achievable: choose something realistic for your current energy and schedule.
• Relevant: pick a goal that matters to you.
• Time-bound: set a simple time frame (e.g., “before lunch” or “today”).

Writing goals this way makes them feel less intimidating. Keep your objectives visible (maybe using the notes app on your phone) and use short, encouraging self-talk (“One thing at a time”) to stay on track. Each SMART step builds confidence and momentum.

While progress has been made to reduce stigma in recent years, people experiencing depression, anxiety, psychosis, or other conditions often still face judgment and even discrimination.

The stigma doesn’t just harm an individual’s self-esteem, but it also can delay or prevent them from seeking treatment, increase their social isolation and lead to a worsening of their symptoms.

What is mental health stigma?

Stigma refers to prejudice, stereotypes, and discriminatory behavior directed toward people who struggle with their mental health.

It’s not just about labels or definitions, but about subtle and sometimes not so subtle ways people may be judged, misunderstood, or excluded when they live with a mental health condition or seek help for it.

Stigma can be visible in conversations where somebody makes a comment such as “just get over it” to a person struggling with depression, or in workplaces where employees hide their struggles in order to avoid being seen as less capable.

Another example of stigma is in certain families or relationships where nobody talks about their emotions, and mental health struggles are characterized as “phases that will pass.” Even in some communities and cultures, talking openly about mental health may be seen as a sign of weakness or something that can bring shame to the family.

Perhaps the most visible and influential example is how media and TV shows sometimes portray people who struggle with their mental health as “dangerous” or “unpredictable,” reinforcing stereotypes surrounding mental health.

The impact of stigma

Stigma has real consequences, which go beyond hurt feelings or judgmental looks. It can change the way people live their lives in ways that make healing and recovery more difficult.

For many, the fear of being judged or labeled can lead to delays in seeking help. Someone might hesitate to reach out for therapy, medication, or even supportive conversations because they are worried about how others will react.

Stigma can also affect self-esteem and hope. Negative stereotypes and dismissive attitudes can make individuals question their own worth and their ability to recover. This constant stress doesn’t just weigh on the emotions, but it can also worsen existing symptoms, pushing people into a cycle where their condition becomes even harder to manage.

Relationships feel the impact too. Many individuals hide their struggles from family or friends out of fear of being misunderstood or judged, but that secrecy can strain communication, leaving them even more isolated.

The workplace is another setting where stigma can create difficulties. People may avoid asking for accommodations or keep silent about their challenges, potentially leading to a crisis, such as a panic attack or emotional breakdown.

On a broader scale, stigma shapes how society treats mental health. When mental health is seen as less important or even shameful, funding also lags behind, leading to fewer services, long wait times, and limited access to care. It can also affect how programs are designed, leaving gaps in insurance coverage, workplace protections, and community support. In this way, stigma doesn’t just affect individuals directly, but it also influences the systems that are supposed to help them.

By understanding all the impacts stigma can have, it becomes clearer why addressing this issue is not only about changing public attitudes, but also supporting individuals’ well-being and the recovery of people who struggle with their mental health.

How to manage and overcome stigma

While stigma can feel overwhelming, there are practical steps you can take to reduce its impact.

Build self-awareness

Recognize when shame or judgment is creeping in. Remind yourself that having a mental health condition is not a personal failure but a part of being human.

Reframing is often helpful. For example, instead of thinking “I’m broken,” think “I’m somebody managing a condition, just like people manage asthma or diabetes.”

Practice self-compassion

Being kind to yourself when you feel negatively about your mental health is one of the most powerful antidotes to self-stigma.

Self-compassion strategies may include journaling, mindfulness exercises, or even speaking to yourself the way you would to a friend who might be struggling with the same issues.

Educate and share stories

One of the most effective ways to fight stigma is through education and open conversation.

Learn about your condition and its effects, and share your own story and journey, whether in support groups, with friends, or in safe online communities. This helps normalize mental health challenges, break down stereotypes, and reduce isolation.

Seek professional support

If stigma makes it difficult to reach out for help, remember that therapists, counselors and doctors are trained to provide care without judgment.

Therapy can be a safe place to talk about feelings of shame and fear, learn coping strategies, and rebuild confidence. If reaching out seems overwhelming, engaging in anonymous support groups or using helplines can be a more gentle first step.

Celebrate small steps

Small achievements such as booking an appointment, opening up to somebody for the first time, or sticking with treatment for a week are worth acknowledging.

Remind yourself that each step, no matter how small it may seem, is an act of courage. Celebrating progress will help you build motivation and overcome stigma.

Find role models

Many public figures, actors, athletes, and even politicians have shared their own mental health journeys. Reading or listening to their stories can help reduce feelings of shame and remind you that recovery is always possible.

Further resources

• Love, Your Mind – a campaign with a focus on promoting well-being and reducing stigma, offering educational resources, inspiration and community.
• Stop Stigma Together – provides education and community initiatives for breaking stigma.
• This is My Brave – shares real stories of recoveries in order to encourage and normalize mental health conversations.
• Stamp Out Stigma – an initiative encouraging people to recognize and talk openly about mental illness.
• Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) – “Do Your Share” campaign (mental health stigma reduction campaign).

Common manifestations of psychosis include hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized thinking, all of which significantly affect daily functioning.

It’s important to note that psychosis is not a disorder on its own, but rather a feature that can be present in several mental health conditions.

Common symptoms and disorders

According to DSM-5, psychotic symptoms include delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking and speech, grossly disorganized or abnormal motor behavior, and other negative symptoms (meaning, instead of leading to abnormal experiences like hallucinations or delusions, psychosis can take away normal emotional and behavioral capacities).

Understanding these categories helps clinicians and caregivers recognize psychotic experiences early and respond appropriately.

Delusions are firmly held false beliefs.

They can come in different themes, depending on an individual’s experience:

• Persecutory delusions are beliefs an individual has that somebody is either spying on them or plotting against them.
• Grandiose delusions are beliefs that they hold a special power, knowledge, insight, discovery, or relationship with a deity.
• Erotomanic delusions include convictions of another person, often someone important or famous, being deeply in love with them, sometimes leading to attempts to contact that person or stalking them.
• Somatic delusions are focused on a belief that they have some sort of medical problem or defect, for example, missing a body part or having insects inside their body.
• Nihilistic delusions typically involve a belief that a major catastrophe will occur.
• Bizarre delusions usually involve beliefs that somebody has control over their mind or body in some way. For example, believing that their thoughts have been “removed” by aliens (thought extraction) or that alien thoughts have been put inside their mind (thought insertion). Another example is believing an outside force has full control of their body and actions (delusions of control).

It’s important to note that due to cultural differences, delusions can sometimes be hard to notice. For example, beliefs in spirits or witchcraft may be considered delusional in some places but are viewed as normal in others.

Hallucinations are involuntary sensory experiences that occur without external stimuli. They can be auditory (ex. hearing voices, music, or footsteps), visual (ex. seeing things that aren’t there), tactile (ex. feeling bugs crawling on your body), olfactory (ex. experiencing smells that nobody else can experience) or gustatory (ex. strange and unpleasant tastes).

Disorganized thinking and speech can manifest in different forms:

• Loose association is characterized by an individual switching from one topic to another.
• Tangential speech, which involves an individual answering a question with a completely unrelated answer.
• Incoherence or “word salad”—severely disorganized speech that is almost or completely incomprehensible. 

Grossly disorganized or abnormal motor behavior (including catatonia) can be characterized by a wide range of presentations, from childlike behavior to unpredictable agitation, leading to problems with goal-directed behavior and daily functioning. In addition, catatonia can lead to a significant decrease in reactivity to the environment.

It can manifest in different forms, such as:

• Negativism – resistance to instructions.
• Bizarre or inappropriate posture.
• Mutism and stupor – complete absence of verbal and motor responses.
• Catatonic excitement – purposeless and excessive motor activity.

Negative symptoms refer to reductions in normal functioning, which can be difficult to recognize. Different types are:

• Affective flattening, characterized by limited emotional expressions, where an individual’s face may seem unresponsive.
• Alogia reflects diminished thought processes through reduced speech or brief replies.
• Avolition is the absence of motivation, which makes daily tasks difficult.
• Anhedonia refers to the inability to experience pleasure from activities an individual once enjoyed.
• Social withdrawal is characterized by difficulty initiating and maintaining relationships.

Psychosis can manifest in different disorders, however it is prominent in: Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder, Delusional Disorder, Schizophreniform Disorder, Brief Psychotic Disorder, Schizotypal Personality Disorder, Catatonia associated with another mental health disorder or medical condition, and Substance or Medication Induced Psychotic Disorder.

Other disorders such as Bipolar and Major Depressive Disorder can have psychotic features, however they usually occur during mood episodes.

Treatment

Due to the complexity of psychotic symptoms, effective treatment includes a combination of psychotherapy and medication, each depending on the presented symptoms and diagnosis.

Medication

Antipsychotics are the first-line treatment for schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, and psychotic features in mood disorders. They target dopamine pathways in the brain in order to reduce delusions and hallucinations.

Typical options include risperidone, olanzapine, and aripiprazole. In addition, mood stabilizers and antidepressants are used when psychosis occurs alongside mood disorders.

Psychotherapy

Psychotherapy can be very useful in the treatment of psychotic symptoms, however this treatment method must be approached with care.

Therapists usually avoid challenging symptoms directly because it can lead to the opposite of the intended effect, with individuals feeling threatened or provoked. Instead, therapists focus on building trust, improving coping skills, and helping patients feel empowered and recognized.

Some evidence-based approaches in the management of psychotic symptoms include:

• Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) helps individuals recognize early signs of relapse, reduce distress, and improve daily functioning. 
• Family therapy aims to educate and support family members.
• Social Skills Training enhances communication and daily functioning.

Hospitalization can be necessary in cases of acute psychosis or safety risk, in order to stabilize and monitor the patient’s symptoms.

Additional resources

• National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) – Understanding Psychosis
• American Psychiatric Association (APA) – Schizophrenia
• Early Psychosis Intervention Network (EPINET) – A national initiative connecting community-based psychosis treatment programs and research hubs
• Massachusetts General Hospital – Psychosis Clinical and Research Program

Emotional memories are different from ordinary memories in the sense that they capture the raw feelings of shame, pain, and sadness of the original experience. Even years later, reminders of these memories can trigger the same powerful reaction. EMM doesn’t erase the memory of what happened, but weakens its emotional charge, making the memory less disruptive in daily life. 

Why emotional memories linger

When we go through distressing events, the brain encodes both the facts and the feelings associated with what happened. This is why a certain smell, song, or phrase can bring up overwhelming emotions.

While this helps us learn from danger (ex. not touching a hot stove), unresolved emotional memories can keep people trapped in old cycles of fear, guilt, or suspicion.

How EMM works

The goal of Emotional Memory Management is to separate the emotion from the memory, by thinking of each experience as a file stored in our memory. The central idea is that these emotional “files” can be changed with practice by watering them down, reframing them, and reducing their emotional grip. The memory of the event remains, but the overwhelming feelings tied to it lose their intensity.

EMM helps people gain control over their emotional responses by managing how past memories or files influence the present. By reorganizing, relabeling, and reframing these memories, individuals can reduce stress, improve emotional regulation, and respond more calmly in challenging situations.

The general process involves:

• Bringing the memory to awareness in a safe and controlled way.
• Acknowledging the feelings that surface without pushing them away.
• Shifting the focus from reliving the pain to reprocessing the memory in a calmer, more objective state.

Over time, this process retrains the brain to view the memory differently.

Techniques for managing emotional files

File awareness

When there is a visible shift in mood, seemingly out of nowhere, a good place to start is to ask “What file is in use?”—meaning, which memory has been dug up.

This simple awareness step helps recognize feelings that come from emotional memories, and not necessarily current reality. This can also be useful to do with a partner. Learning to recognize each other’s “bad files” and gently let each other know when they come out can help you avoid unnecessary conflict.

Physical interruption

If a painful memory begins to surface, doing something physical like adjusting your posture or touching an object nearby can be a reminder of the present moment, stopping the memory file from fully playing out.

Categorizing the past

Putting all of the bad memories in a single file cabinet and labeling it, for example “My tough years,” can prevent a person from getting stuck reliving every painful memory.

Pairing memory with positive contexts and imagination

Pulling up the painful memory (file) while listening to uplifting music, resting in the sun, or watching something entertaining can gradually blend new associations into the memory, lowering the negative feelings it carries.

In addition, the brain doesn’t distinguish well between real and imagined experience, so imagining a way to handle a situation differently or rewriting the whole experience can also be beneficial.

Adding humor

Humor is one of the best “contaminators.” If a bad memory resurfaces, it can be helpful to find something absurd and ironic about it, even make it up. Rehearsing how events could have unfolded in a funny way breaks the seriousness of the file, reducing its emotional weight.

Reframing the past

When an old memory resurfaces, saying to yourself “I don’t live that way anymore” or “Those times are over” creates a distance between who somebody was and who they are now.

Pulling the right file

You can have “good files” at hand, such as memories of precious moments, so that when a bad file is triggered, it can be replaced with the good one. A useful tip could be having photos of happy memories nearby, so it’s easier to remember positive moments.

On the other hand, it can be beneficial to sometimes pull out the bad files, especially for those struggling with substance abuse.

Drugs and alcohol often create “good files” in the brain due to their chemical effects, while the negative consequences are pushed aside. By deliberately pulling out the difficult part of that memory, such as the impact substance use had on a loved one, you can lower the automatic appeal the drug has and increase the motivation to stay sober.

Whether the abuse comes from a partner, a parent, or another family member, survivors often feel like they have done something to cause it or contribute to it. This misplaced guilt makes it harder to recognize abuse for what it is, and it leads to victims being stuck in a vicious cycle of violence.

Understanding why guilt arises and what triggers it is a crucial part of the recovery process.

Why guilt emerges

Manipulation and blame shifting

Abusers often twist situations so the victims feel responsible for their outbursts and mistreatment. Over time, this creates a pattern of self-doubt, for example, thinking “If I had been quieter, maybe they wouldn’t have gotten angry.”

This belief is based on conditioning and not the reality of the situation. The abuse is never the victim’s fault, yet the abuser makes the victim feel guilty.

Emotional attachment and protectiveness

Many victims still love or care for the person hurting them. Instead of wanting to leave, they may hope things will improve.

Therefore, even at the thought of leaving, they may feel guilty for thinking of abandoning somebody they care about. The bond may lead to victims believing they are responsible for “saving” or “fixing” that person.

Shame and internalized blame

Guilt may lead to feelings of shame, as victims may feel like there is something wrong with who they are. They may feel flawed or believe they deserve what’s happening to them. These feelings and beliefs can be especially powerful in people who have experienced abuse in their childhood.

Growing up in an environment of constant neglect, abuse, and criticism can make self-blame feel natural. If abuse happens again later in life, the mind can go back to the same old pattern of self-blame.

Moving beyond guilt

Recognize where the guilt comes from

Ask yourself what is the source of the guilt you feel. Does it reflect your own values, or was it placed there by someone else’s manipulation?

If you are a survivor of childhood abuse, it can be helpful to reflect on these early experiences and see if the guilt feels familiar. Recognizing that this pattern of self-blame may have begun long before the current relationship started can make it easier for you to see it as a form of conditioning, rather than the truth. Simply naming the source can help with recognizing what belongs to you and what doesn’t.

Reframe responsibility

Abuse happens because of the abuser’s choice, not because you did or didn’t do something. When guilt creeps in, try allowing yourself to reframe the thought of “I made them do this” to “They chose this behavior themselves.”

If you start feeling guilty for remaining in the relationship for so long, it can help to remember that staying longer doesn’t mean you caused the abuse. It means that you probably weren’t ready to leave, or you didn’t feel safe and secure enough to make that choice at the time.

The belief that leaving is the same as abandoning the other person can be reframed into a healthier view, such as “Taking care of myself is not abandonment, it’s survival.”

Allow yourself to feel without judging

When the abuse happens, it is completely normal to feel conflicted emotions.

When guilt emerges, instead of fighting it, try to acknowledge it as a feeling and not a fact. Remind yourself that those feelings are temporary and they don’t define your worth.

Build supportive relationships

Talking with trusted friends, support groups, or professionals can provide you with a new perspective on life and the abusive relationship.

Psychotherapy can help with distorted beliefs and provide you with knowledge of the manipulation tactics abusers use. Additionally, support groups can offer validation from others who have lived through the same experience, reducing the feelings of isolation that often fuel guilt.

Hearing someone else describe the same guilt you feel can make you realize how misplaced that guilt truly is.

Practice compassion toward yourself

Healing takes time, and it requires you to replace self-criticism with kindness.

A useful step is to ask yourself if you would blame a loved one if they were in the same situation. If the answer is no, then you should give yourself the same level of understanding.

Remember, guilt is not a sign of weakness, but a predictable response to years of manipulation and control, and it doesn’t have to define your healing journey.

These symptoms can make ordinary conversations frightening, threatening, and overwhelming for both the patient and their caregiver.

When working with patients experiencing psychotic symptoms, it is important to use a structured communication approach that emphasizes clarity and empathy.

Build trust first

Trust lays the groundwork for every therapeutic relationship. Patients experiencing psychosis may feel suspicious or fearful, so rapport must be built slowly. You can:

• Start the session with neutral, non-threatening topics (ex. “How has your sleep been?” instead of “Why do you think people are after you?”). 
• Maintain calm body language and tone of voice. Therapy will be the patient’s safe space, so your presence needs to be calming. For example, you can sit at their level (rather than standing over them), avoid sudden movements, and respect their personal space.
• Use the patient’s name regularly in order to foster recognition and respect.
• Allow for silence to happen. Some people may need extra time to process information and respond without feeling pressured. For example, a patient who is hesitant to speak may feel safer and become more open if you allow pauses and gently prompt them with “take your time, I’m listening.”

Listen without confronting delusions

Directly challenging a psychotic patient’s beliefs can lead to mistrust and resistance. Instead, the focus should be on validating their emotions and finding common ground, with a major emphasis on listening.

A lot of patients’ psychosis symptoms actually have a larger meaning behind them, giving you a clue as to what you can work on. Some practical steps include:

• Acknowledging the feeling without challenging the delusion (ex. “That sounds frightening”, instead of “No, they are not watching you”).  
• Ask about the impact their belief has instead of chasing the truth (ex. “How does it affect your day to feel watched?”). 
• Redirect attention towards current coping strategies (ex. “What helps you feel calmer when that happens?”).

Communicate clearly and simply

Disorganized thinking can make complex language hard to follow. Simplicity and repetition can help patients process information more easily. For example:

• Use of short, easy to understand sentences: “Take this medication twice a day” instead of “This medication should be administered twice daily”.
• Give one instruction at a time and confirm if it has been fully understood.
• Repeat or rephrase if the patient feels confused.
• Avoid clinical jargon and metaphors.

Maintain a patient-centered approach

People experiencing psychosis often feel disempowered and controlled by their symptoms.

Your role in providing care is to counteract this by inviting them to collaborate with you, and by respecting their autonomy.

You can:

• Offer small, realistic choices to provide patients with some sense of control over their lives. For example, if you have a client who is supposed to start group therapy, but seems unsure, you could ask if they would feel more comfortable starting with a shorter session or meeting one-on-one with you first.
• Ask the patient for input on the topic of their goals (“What’s most important for you to work on right now?”).
• Reinforce the patient’s autonomy by respecting their decisions as much as possible.

Stay calm and regulated

Psychotic patients may enter into a session already in distress, or something during the conversation might trigger negative emotions inside them. In these situations, it’s important for clinicians to stay calm, maintain composure, and de-escalate the situation.

Therapy should be the patient’s safe space, where they can feel free to express any emotion without feeling ashamed or guilty, and in providing care, clinicians can model stable behaviors.

This could look like:

• Keeping your tone steady and volume low, even if the patient becomes agitated.
• Using slow, deliberate movements to avoid escalating paranoia.
• Setting boundaries calmly if the patient becomes verbally aggressive. For example: “I want to continue talking with you, but I need you to lower your voice so we can communicate effectively.”

It’s important to note that in case you feel the situation has become unsafe for you, the patient, or others, you should disengage and follow your institution’s safety protocols.

Additionally, if the situation doesn’t seem physically dangerous, but the emotional pressure feels overwhelming for you, take a step back, seek supervision, and use team-based approaches rather than continuing alone.

Provide consistency and structure

Predictability can lower anxiety and foster security in schizophrenic patients. You can provide this by keeping appointments consistent in timing and setting, and giving brief explanations of what will be discussed in the next session.

In case changes are necessary, you should give gentle warnings. For example, if the session needs to be shorter, you could say “today we only have 40 minutes instead of an hour, but I will make sure to cover all the main points and continue the next time we see each other.”

Humanize the patient beyond the diagnosis

The last but most important aspect of communicating with psychotic patients is humanizing them.

People experiencing psychosis often feel reduced to just their symptoms, rather than being seen as individuals. This leads to feelings of mistrust, isolation, and stigma.

It’s critical to have empathy and approach patients as people—not just a set of symptoms that needs to be “fixed”. Try to engage in topics about their life and show genuine curiosity about their interests, goals, and relationships.

Additionally, a patient’s psychosis symptoms can stand out to the world and people around them, making them feel isolated, so it’s important to acknowledge the person’s strengths and resilience, not just their difficulties. Truly caring for people and their interests can build therapeutic rapport and make them feel validated and recognized, reinforcing hope, and helping with the recovery process.

Further resources

• American Psychiatric Association (APA) – Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Patients With Schizophrenia, Third Edition.
• Early Psychosis Intervention Network (EPINET) – Articles of Interest.
• Schizophrenia and Psychosis Action Alliance (S&PAA, formerly known as SARDAA) – Provider Resources.
• National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) – Recovery After an Initial Schizophrenia Episode (RAISE).

Because these patterns are deeply ingrained and appear across many life situations, not just during crises, they are often mistaken as an individual having a “difficult” personality, rather than a very complex mental health condition. As a result, personality disorders are often misrepresented and stigmatized, though they can cause significant distress and impairment in functioning across different areas of life.

Definition and DSM-5 Criteria

According to the DSM-5, for a personality disorder diagnosis:

• An individual must present with a pattern of behavior across at least two key areas: cognition, affectivity, interpersonal functioning, or impulse control.
• The behavior must be long-term (often since early adulthood), and result in significant impairment or distress.
• The behavior must be stable over time and across different situations.
• The behavior must be distinct from cultural norms and can’t be better explained by another mental health condition.

The DSM-5 divides ten specific personality disorders into three clusters, based on their predominant traits: Cluster A (odd/eccentric), Cluster B (dramatic/erratic), and Cluster C (anxious/fearful).

Cluster A – Odd or Eccentric 

Individuals with personality disorders included in this cluster often feel socially detached, suspicious, or eccentric in their thinking patterns and behavior, making building connections and trust difficult.

Personality disorders in this cluster include:

• Paranoid Personality Disorder is characterized by deep mistrust of others and interpreting ordinary events as threatening or malicious (ex. believing coworkers are plotting against them without any evidence). 
• Schizoid Personality Disorder presents as a detachment from relationships, preference for solitary activities, and emotional coldness (ex. a relative who avoids all family gatherings and seems indifferent to compliments or criticism).
• Schizotypal Personality Disorder is defined by discomfort in close relationships, magical beliefs, and strange speech and mannerisms (ex. believing a special magical ritual can heal their loved one from a medical condition).

Due to their psychotic features, clinicians are careful when diagnosing disorders from Cluster A as they can be closely tied to Schizophrenia, Bipolar Disorder, or Depressive Disorder. 

Treatment

People with Cluster A disorders rarely seek treatment unless symptoms interfere with daily functioning. Some therapeutic approaches used for treatment include:

• Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) helps individuals challenge their paranoid thoughts, improve social engagement, and reduce mistrust. 
• Psychodynamic Therapy explores early childhood experiences that may have contributed to suspicious or detached behaviors, fostering insight and self-awareness.
• Group therapy is probably one of the more challenging approaches for individuals struggling with a disorder from this cluster due to their mistrust and social detachment/anxiety. In order to be successful, group therapy needs to be carefully structured, for example using smaller, more supportive groups. Therapists need to create psychological safety and gradually work on trust-building.

Although no medication directly treats these disorders, low-dose antipsychotics can be prescribed to manage paranoia or perceptual distortions. If there are co-occurring mood symptoms, antidepressants (SSRIs) can be used to manage them.

Cluster B – Dramatic, Emotional, or Erratic

This cluster contains Personality Disorders characterized by strong emotional reactions, turbulent relationships, and impulsive or attention-seeking behavior, which usually leads to interpersonal conflict:

• Antisocial Personality Disorder is characterized by disregard for others’ rights, deceitfulness, problems with authority, and a lack of remorse (ex. constant lying, conning others to get their way, and manipulating without feeling guilt).
• Borderline Personality Disorder presents with instability in mood, self-image, and relationships, fear of abandonment, and self-harm behaviors (ex. repeatedly texting their partner and threatening with self-harm if they don’t respond).
• Histrionic Personality Disorder is characterized by extreme sensitivity, attention-seeking behavior, and a need to be the center of attention (ex. dramatic outbursts or inappropriate flirting). 
• Narcissistic Personality Disorder has two subtypes, overt and covert narcissism. Overt narcissistic behavior shows feelings of grandiosity and a need for open admiration, while covert narcissistic behavior is more subtle. However, both types involve fragile self-esteem (ex. becoming furious when not praised for doing something, even when putting in minimal effort).

Treatment

Treatment of Cluster B personality disorders is often difficult because patients may experience frequent crises, fluctuate between devaluing and idealizing their therapist, and struggle with unstable or chaotic lifestyles.

Consistent, structured therapy is often an essential part of treatment. Different approaches include:

• Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT) can be especially useful in the treatment of Borderline Personality Disorder. It teaches emotional regulation, distress tolerance, mindfulness, and interpersonal effectiveness.
• Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) can help modify impulsive behaviors and distorted thinking, particularly in Narcissistic and Antisocial Personality Disorders.
• Schema Therapy addresses and replaces deeply ingrained maladaptive patterns with more healthy ones. These can include entitlement, fear of abandonment, or unstable self-image. 
• Family and Couples Therapy supports relational dynamics. It plays a big part in the treatment of disorders in this particular cluster due to their symptoms often leading to interpersonal conflict. It helps establish boundaries and provides guidance for family members and partners in managing volatile interactions.

Just like for Cluster A (and later on Cluster C), no medication is used to directly treat Cluster B disorders. However, antidepressants (SSRIs), mood stabilizers, or atypical antipsychotics can be used to target co-occurring symptoms of depression, anxiety, mood swings, or aggression. 

Cluster C – Anxious or Fearful

Individuals struggling with Personality Disorders in this category often prioritize safety, control, and approval in ways that restrict their lives. They tend to be excessively anxious, fearful, perfectionistic, or dependent.

Disorders in this cluster include:

• Avoidant Personality Disorder is characterized by extreme fear of rejection, leading to social withdrawal, although the person does want social connection. Individuals often feel inadequate, excessively shy, and are preoccupied with rejection or criticism (ex. avoiding a romantic relationship or friendships unless they are completely certain they will be accepted and liked).
• Dependent Personality Disorder often leads to submissive behavior due to individuals needing constant reassurance and guidance. They need to be taken care of and have difficulties making decisions, no matter how small, in their daily life (ex. they will ask for advice on what to wear or eat, or they may tolerate abuse in order to maintain a relationship).
• Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder (OCPD) can sometimes be confused with Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD), however they are different conditions. OCPD is a personality disorder characterized by preoccupation with orderliness, perfectionism, and control, while OCD is an anxiety disorder consisting of intrusive thoughts and repetitive behaviors, which can manifest in different ways. Individuals with OCPD tend to be very stubborn and rigid, prioritizing rules, control, and details over the bigger picture, sacrificing any flexibility (ex. constantly checking their work for errors, leading to missed deadlines). 

Treatment

Disorders in Cluster C are generally more responsive to therapy, with Cognitive Behavioral Therapy being the most effective approach. It focuses on reducing avoidance behaviors, increasing assertiveness, and addressing perfectionistic or dependent patterns.

Some other approaches include:

• Psychodynamic Therapy focuses on underlying fears of rejection, inadequacy, or loss of control through the exploration of early life experiences.
• Group Therapy offers a safe space for social interaction (especially for Avoidant Personality Disorder) and builds confidence in interpersonal relationships.
• Family or Couples Therapy helps relatives establish a supportive but non-enabling environment and improve communication patterns.

When it comes to medication, antidepressants (SSRIs) and anti-anxiety medications can be prescribed in order to manage co-occurring anxiety or depression, especially in Avoidant and Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorders.

Further resources

• New England Personality Disorder Association – a nonprofit organization providing support and education for people struggling with Personality Disorders and their families.
• American Psychiatric Association (APA) – Help for Personality Disorders.
• National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI) – Family to Family (an educational program).
• 988 Lifeline – A 24/7 support for anyone in crisis or emotional distress, which can be reached by dialing 988 or via web chat.

However, in some cases this well-intentioned role can begin to go beyond healthy boundaries, leading to a pattern of behavior known as codependence.

When this happens, a caretaker’s identity becomes increasingly tied to stabilizing their loved one, often at the cost of their own emotional well-being, family functioning, and their family member’s long-term recovery.

How codependence develops in families

In families with a person facing mental health issues, it is normal for a certain person or people to take on more responsibility. Difficulties arise when helping turns into controlling or rescuing types of behavior.

Codependent family members may start to believe that without their constant supervision, assistance, or emotional support, their loved one won’t be able to cope. This dynamic is often referred to as dysfunctional helping, where support turns into enabling. The “giver” gains identity through rescuing, and the “taker” internalizes helplessness, basing the relationship on their own needs rather than mutual growth.

Psychological factors such as early childhood experiences of neglect and abuse, low self-esteem, and a family’s expectations of a certain member “being strong” can lead to increased vulnerability to codependence. In many cases, the caretaker becomes the emotional center of the household, even while struggling with problems such as anxiety, guilt, exhaustion, depression, and resentment themselves.

Characteristic behaviors of codependence

Codependence may look different in each family, but some common signs include caretakers:

• Neglecting their own needs in order to manage or anticipate another person’s moods or mental health symptoms.
• Having difficulties setting boundaries, feeling guilty when they say “no”, even when they are overwhelmed.
• Taking responsibility for the other person’s actions by believing that if they just “help enough”, the other person will improve.
• Fearing conflict or abandonment, and as a result, tolerating and enabling damaging behaviors. This sometimes presents in the form of tolerating abuse, giving money, or making excuses for the other person.
• Monitoring and controlling the other person by checking medication intake, tracking appointments, and taking over responsibilities, in order to ease the stress felt by the other person. This can sometimes escalate into a pattern of manipulative behavior, due to the caretaker’s fear of losing control. They may start supervising their family member’s daily routines or checking their phone, supposedly to keep track of or help with their mental health.
• Defining their own self-worth through proving their usefulness—believing their value comes from being needed. This can escalate into using guilt, subtle emotional pressure, or isolation from outside support to keep their caretaker role for as long as possible.

For example, a mother may give up work opportunities in order to have more time to support her teenage son, who struggles with Major Depressive Disorder, and ends up managing every aspect of his day to prevent emotional distress.

Another example can be a daughter tiptoeing around her mother’s Bipolar II symptoms, avoiding friendships, turning down social plans, and covering up for financial or interpersonal fallout in her effort to keep her mother “stable”.

The effect of codependency on families

When one family member takes on too many responsibilities, the entire family system can be affected. Common risks include:

• Worsening symptoms in the individual being cared for, with independence and accountability reducing over time.
• Caretaker burnout, which involves feeling emotionally exhausted, potentially leading to irritability, fatigue, and other health issues.
• Isolation as the caretaker’s own friendships and goals slowly fade under the growing demands of the person they are caring for. 
• Family conflict stemming from resentment and an imbalance in roles and responsibilities. Other family members may feel overlooked or pushed aside by the caretaker.

What to do if you recognize codependent patterns in your life

Knowing the difference between codependent behavior and healthy acts of caring can help you recognize codependency within your own family dynamics.

While codependence may look like supportive behavior at first glance, the internal motivation behind the carer’s actions makes all the difference. 

Codependence is often motivated by fear of losing your loved one or not being needed, and trying to “fix” them or their problems. On the other hand, healthy caring is focused on providing support and love while maintaining your own identity.

Breaking the codependent dynamic involves rebalancing care, boundaries, and self-focus by:

• Setting and maintaining healthy boundaries—deciding what you can and can’t reasonably provide in terms of time, emotional energy, and practical support. Communicate these boundaries clearly and stick with them. It’s important to know that boundary-setting doesn’t mean abandoning the other person—instead, it’s a way for you to protect your mental health while improving your loved one’s independence.
• Re-engaging with your own life by making time for other family members, friendships, work, hobbies, and self-care routines. Rebuilding your own interests and identity is one of the most effective ways to break the codependent pattern.
• Allowing for consequences to happen by resisting the urge to shield your loved one from all possible negative outcomes. You can provide them with love and support, but your relative needs to be responsible for their own actions. Although it can be difficult and feel uncomfortable, stepping back is beneficial in the long run as your loved one maintains their own autonomy and identity. 
• Seeking therapy and support for yourself through family therapy, counseling, or support groups. In these sessions, you can safely explore feelings of guilt, shame, anxiety, or loss of identity, while also learning skills for better communication and delivering supportive, non-enabling care.
• Embracing collaborative support by involving professionals, other family members, and support workers, and following a structured treatment process in caring for your loved one. Accept all the support you can get instead of acting as your relative’s sole caretaker.

Caring for somebody who struggles with mental health conditions can be demanding and overwhelming, but it doesn’t mean you need to lose your sense of identity. Understanding that sometimes helping less is actually helping more can lead to healthier dynamics for everyone involved.

When it comes to the cause, research indicates that there is a strong genetic component. This genetic factor leads to neurodivergence (difference in brain development), especially in areas of the brain responsible for executive functioning and attention regulation, such as the frontal lobe.

Other environmental factors, such as premature birth, substance use during pregnancy, or exposure to environmental toxins can contribute to the development of ADHD, but don’t directly cause it.

DSM-5 definition, symptoms, and subtypes

In order to meet DSM-5 criteria for diagnosis, ADHD symptoms must be present for at least six months, persist in at least two settings (ex. home and school or work) and negatively impact social, academic and occupational functioning.

Symptoms must have appeared before the age of 12, and the core features fall under two main categories: inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity. 

Inattention refers to persistent difficulties directing attention and focusing on tasks or instructions. Individuals struggling with inattention may appear forgetful, easily distracted, or disorganized, or struggle to complete activities that require constant focus (ex. listening for a longer period of time or reading long paragraphs). On the other hand, individuals can be hyper-focused on topics of their interest. The problem for people struggling with ADHD is in regulating directed attention to non-preferred tasks, while automatic, interest-driven attention remains unaffected.

Hyperactive-impulsivity is characterized by excessive physical movement, restlessness, talking, and acting without thinking. Hyperactivity may present as fidgeting, difficulties staying seated, excessive talking or difficulties with patience (ex. waiting for their turn). In addition, impulsivity is often shown in interrupting other people’s activities, blurting out answers, or finishing other people’s sentences, and making quick decisions without thinking. While hyperactivity symptoms often decrease with age, impulsivity can remain in other forms, such as abrupt emotional reactions or impulsive spending.

Three subtypes based on symptoms presented are outlined in DSM-5:

• Predominantly Inattentive Presentation, whereby individuals mainly struggle with attention, organization, and follow-through. This category is commonly described as “day-dreamy” and disorganized rather than disruptive.
• Predominantly Hyperactive-Impulsive Presentation – physical restlessness, excessive talking, and impulsivity are dominant symptoms in this subtype. 
• A combined presentation can have both inattentive and hyperactive-impulsive symptoms.

Treatment

Although ADHD can’t be cured, a wide range of evidence-based treatments can significantly reduce symptoms and make this condition more manageable in daily functioning.

Medication

Medication is usually the first-line treatment for ADHD. Two main pharmacological categories of medication are used to treat this condition:

Stimulants (methylphenidate-based and amphetamine-based medications) increase dopamine and norepinephrine (neurotransmitter) activity in the brain, enhancing focus and impulse control. They usually come in two groups: 

• Immediate-release (ex. Adderall) tablets work quickly but only last three to five hours, so they need to be taken a few times a day. They can also result in lower mood, hunger, tiredness, and irritability as the dose fades. 
• Extended-release (ex. Adderall XR) tablets release the dose slowly throughout the day, usually lasting anywhere between seven and twelve hours. They are taken once during the day, usually in the morning. 

Non-stimulants are used as alternatives if stimulants are ineffective or not tolerated. They take longer for effects to be visible, sometimes requiring weeks of consistent use, however they can provide symptom relief for up to 24 hours, and they have a lower risk of appetite loss or sleep disruption when compared to stimulants.

Non-stimulant medications include:

• Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (ex. Atomoxetine) work by blocking the brain from reabsorbing norepinephrine too quickly, leading to improved attention and impulse control.  
• Alpha-2 adrenergic agonists (ex. Clonidine) work by stimulating receptors in the brain that help regulate how much norepinephrine is being released, therefore reducing hyperactivity.

It is important to note that stimulants are classified as controlled, while non-stimulants are not. This means stimulants are more likely to cause dependency or misuse, and as a result, their usage is closely monitored. Some state laws even restrict the number of stimulant medications an individual can receive at once.

Psychotherapy and behavioral strategies

Other evidence-based approaches to treating ADHD include:

• Behavioral therapy helps individuals develop skills necessary for organization, planning, and self-monitoring. With children, it emphasizes a structured reward system: set specific behaviors, reward them immediately and consistently (with points, stickers, privileges), and embed them in clear routines.
• Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) has shown a positive effect in helping adolescents and adults with ADHD. It focuses on restructuring an individual’s negative patterns of thinking while also addressing emotional challenges and co-occurring symptoms of anxiety or depression. 
• Parent training programs are a way for parents or caregivers to learn how to encourage their children’s positive behaviors and respond to negative behavior, while also establishing a consistent routine for their child. 
• Social skills groups focus on teaching children social skills when interacting with their peers in a supervised setting.
• Lifestyle adjustments can play an important role in the management of ADHD symptoms. Individuals can benefit from regular physical activity, structured daily routines, adequate sleep, and using tools such as planners, timers, and reminder systems to help with memory and organization.

Further resources

• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) – ADHD Resource Center.
• Children and Adults with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (CHADD) – a non-profit foundation helping people diagnosed with ADHD by providing tools, strategies and support.
• American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (AACAP) – ADHD Resource Center.
• Child Mind Institute – LEGO Therapy Social Skills Group.

Fortunately, multiple federal, state, and private programs exist to help reduce the cost of prescription drugs for those who struggle to afford the medication they need.

Federal and state programs

• Federally Qualified Health Centers (FQHCs) offer care with sliding-scale fees based on income. To be eligible, you need to be uninsured or underinsured, have limited financial resources, and be a resident of the local service area that the FQHC serves. These organizations usually provide low-cost psychiatric medication as well as help with applying to other financial assistance programs. You can find a health center in your area on the Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA) website.
• State Medicaid programs provide coverage for low-income individuals, including children, adults, seniors, and people with disabilities. Eligibility is usually determined by comparing your income to the federal poverty level, while also considering your household size and some additional state-specific criteria. To check the criteria that apply in your state, you can contact your state health department, or visit Medicaid’s state assistance map. 
• The Medicare “Extra Help” Program is a federal scheme that helps people who are Medicare beneficiaries with limited income and resources, which can reduce the cost of mental health prescriptions under the Medicare drug coverage provisions. You can apply to Medicare Extra Help by contacting your local State Health Insurance program (SHIP) or online by visiting the Social Security Administration application page.

Independent Charitable Patient Assistance Programs (ICPAPs)

ICPAPs are nonprofit organizations that help cover the cost of medication-related co-payments, deductibles, or premiums, meaning they can help cover part or all of your insurance costs.

• The Patient Advocate Foundation offers co-pay assistance to individuals with chronic mental health conditions. Eligibility usually requires a diagnosis of a mental health condition and meeting certain income guidelines. 
• The HealthWell Foundation provides funding for medication co-payments or insurance premiums for a broad list of illnesses, including mental health conditions, when funding is available. Eligibility is based on your income and having a confirmed diagnosis, but unlike some other programs, this one requires health insurance. You can check their website for a list of medications that they cover.
• The PAN Foundation (Patient Access Network) helps individuals who have insurance coverage and are actively receiving treatment. When it comes to income requirements, you normally have to be earning less than 500% of the Federal Poverty Level. You can visit their Find a Disease Fund page to check if you might be eligible.
• The Assistance Fund (TAF) supports patients with high medication costs, including mental health conditions, by covering co-pays, coinsurance, and sometimes premiums for specific medications. You can check eligibility on their website.

Pharmaceutical patient assistance programs (PAPs)

Several pharmaceutical manufacturers have programs to help eligible patients access mental health medication, known as patient assistance programs.

• Pfizer RxPathways is Pfizer’s PAP, which is now reserved for people who remain unable to afford their medication even after exploring all other options and programs. Before Pfizer’s PAP will consider an application for a covered Pfizer drug, you must enroll in the Medicare Prescription Payment Plan (MPPP), provide denial letters from all applicable ICPAPs, and meet the income cap of less than 300% of the Federal Poverty Level. A valid prescription is also required. 
• Lilly Cares Foundation (Eli Lilly and Company) is a nonprofit charitable organization providing free access to Lilly medications for up to 12 months to eligible individuals. Prescribed medications for bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and depression are included. You can check out the full list of available medications and eligibility criteria on their website.
• The Janssen Patient Assistance Program (Johnson and Johnson) helps people who are uninsured or have inadequate insurance coverage access certain drugs for free, though there are also some income requirements, and help is also limited to a maximum of 12 months. Medications covered under this program include certain antipsychotics such as Invega Sustenna, as well as other drugs. You can find eligibility requirements as well as links for online enrollment here.
• The AbbVie Patient Assistance Program provides access to some psychiatric medications for eligible low-income individuals. You can check their Patient Assistance page for more information on eligibility and applicable medications.

Discount programs, community organizations, and co-pay assistance

The Patient Advocate Foundation offers co-pay assistance to individuals with chronic mental health conditions. Eligibility usually includes a diagnosis of a mental health condition and meeting certain income limits. 

Another way you can get significant discounts on prescription drugs is through pharmacy discounts, or by combining PAP with a pharmacy discount card. Many large pharmacies such as Walmart, CVS, and Walgreens offer discount cards or generic medication programs, which usually don’t require insurance, and are available to everyone.

Local community mental health centers often provide access to subsidized pharmacies and guidance on applying for federal, state, or private assistance programs. 

Working with your healthcare provider

Talking openly with your prescriber about financial barriers can help you find different solutions to access the medication you need. Clinicians are often familiar with available resources and programs and may be able to refer you to the best one(s) for your specific medication(s).

They can also offer practical solutions such as switching to more affordable alternative drugs, providing you with letters of medical necessity, or helping you obtain prior authorization from insurers.  

Practical steps to access low-cost medication

It helps to be prepared when working with medication assistance programs.

You can start by gathering the necessary documentation that these schemes generally require (such as your proof of income, insurance status, and prescriptions). Most programs have their own eligibility requirements, which makes things difficult, but there are certain things that each of them normally requires when you apply.

Research multiple potential PAPs, and ask your healthcare provider to help you navigate applications. Finally, keeping track of your medication supply and upcoming refill dates can prevent disruptions to your treatment while applications are being processed. 

Further resources

• NeedyMeds offers an up-to-date database of available PAPs, including eligibility criteria and clear instructions on the application process.
• RxAssist provides detailed information on free or low-cost medications, as well as different Patient Assistance Programs. 
• The Partnership for Prescription Assistance (PPA) connects patients with hundreds of programs based on their income, insurance status, and prescribed medications.